Sep 01, · Crosstabulation was used to test for association between participants’ personal characteristics and the prevalence of circulating the information. Mineka S. Fears, phobias, and preparedness: toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychol Rev. ;(3)– doi Oct 21, · Figure 4: Nonsocial and social fear learning in humans. An individual learns to fear a CS through its pairing with (a) an electric shock to the wrist (fear conditioning), (b) a learning model’s expression of distress (observational fear learning), and (c) verbal information about its aversive qualities (instructed fear) Another postulation by the model that has not been supported is the assumption that fear acquisition of prepared stimuli is a primitive form of learning with little cognitive involvement. For example, Dawson, Shell, and Banis () measured skin conductance response and US expectancy online (i.e., the expectancy that the US will follow the CS)
Cognitive processes during fear acquisition and extinction in animals and humans
Curator: Luiz Pessoa. Eugene M. Luiz PessoaIndiana University, Bloomington, IN. The relationship between cognition and emotion has fascinated important fear acquisition association learning model mineka within the Western intellectual tradition. Historically, emotion and cognition have been viewed as largely separate. In the past two decades, however, a growing body of work has fear acquisition association learning model mineka to the interdependence between the two.
Cognition refers to processes such as memoryattentionlanguageproblem solving, and planning. Many cognitive processes are thought to involve sophisticated functions that may be unique to primates. They often involve so-called controlled processes, such as when the pursuit of a goal e. A prototypical example of a neural correlate of a cognitive process is the sustained firing of cells in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex as a monkey maintains information in mind for brief periods of time Fuster and Alexander, ; Kubota and Niki, With the advent of functional MRI fMRIit appears that cognitive processes engage cortical regions of the brain Gazzaniga et al.
Whereas there is relative agreement about what constitutes cognition, the same cannot be said about emotion. Some investigators use definitions that incorporate the concepts of drive and motivation : emotions are states elicited by rewards and punishers Rolls, Others favor the view that emotions are involved in the conscious or unconscious evaluation of events Arnold, i. Some approaches focus on basic emotions Ekman, e. Strong evidence also links emotions to the body Damasio, Brain structures linked to emotion are often subcortical, such as the amygdalaventral striatumand hypothalamus.
These structures are often considered evolutionarily conserved, or primitive. They are also believed to operate fear acquisition association learning model mineka and in an automatic fashionsuch that certain trigger features e. Accordingly, an individual may not be necessarily conscious of a stimulus that may have triggered brain responses in an affective brain region, such as the amygdala.
For discussion, see Ohman, ; Pessoa, Because of the inherent difficulty in providing clear definitions for both cognition and emotion, they will not be further defined here. We now turn to illustrating some of the interactions between emotion and cognition. Given the enormous scope of this topic, by necessity, this review will be relatively narrow in scope and will emphasize the brain systems involved in the interactions between emotion and i perception and attention; ii learning and memory; and iii behavioral inhibition and working memory.
Other valuable sources include Damasio, ; LeDoux, ; Damasio, ; Dolan, ; Rolls, ; Phelps, A key conclusion from this review and from other current discussions of the relationship between cognition and emotion is that it is probably counterproductive to try to separate them. Instead, current thinking emphasizes their interdependence in ways that challenge a simple division of labor into separate cognitive and emotional domains.
In particular, in the context of the brain, the general dichotomization alluded to above in terms of cortical-cognitive and subcortical-emotional brain areas is now viewed as largely simplified and breaks down rather quickly when more in-depth analyses are carried out; e. Before proceeding, however, a brief historical note is in order. It can be said that the mere-exposure effect and other behavioral findings shifted ongoing debates to focus on affect as being related to unconscious processing and subcortical activity, with cognition being related to conscious processing and cortical involvement.
These early behavioral studies provided a strong impetus to the wave of neuroscience research in the late s and beyond that investigated related phenomena. For some of the early theoretical arguments, see Fazio et al. Viewing emotion-laden visual stimuli is linked to heightened and more extensive visual system activation Pessoa et al.
For instance, viewing faces with emotional expressions evokes increased responses relative to viewing neutral faces throughout ventral occipitotemporal visual cortex Figure 1.
Visual responses are also stronger when subjects view emotional scenes e. Increased visual activation is observed in both late visual areas, such as the fusiform gyrus and superior temporal sulcus, and early visual cortex in occipital cortex.
Recent studies suggest that, in humans, even retinotopically organized visual cortex, including visual areas V1 and V2 along the calcarine fissure, are modulated by the affective significance of a stimulus Padmala and Pessoa, Enhanced visual activation when viewing emotional stimuli is consistent with the observed improvements in behavioral performance in several visual tasks, fear acquisition association learning model mineka. For instance, angry and happy faces are fear acquisition association learning model mineka faster in visual search tasks Eastwood et al.
Stronger evidence comes from studies of the attentional blink paradigm, in which subjects are asked to report the occurrence of two targets T1 and T2 among a rapid stream of visual stimuli. When T2 follows T1 by a brief delay, participants are more likely to miss it, as if they had blinked hence the name. The attentional blink is believed to reflect a capacity-limited processing stage, possibly linked to a process of consolidation of the detected item for conscious reports. Interestingly, the attentional blink has been shown to be modulated by emotional stimuli, as subjects are significantly better at detecting T2 when it is an emotion-laden word e.
Converging evidence for a link between perception, attention, and emotion comes from additional studies, fear acquisition association learning model mineka. For example, patients with unilateral inattention due to spatial hemineglect often as a result of right hemisphere parietal lesions are better at detecting happy or angry faces compared to neutral ones Vuilleumier and Schwartz, These findings are consistent with the notion that emotional faces may direct the allocation of attention.
For instance, in one study, emotional faces were flashed at spatial locations that subsequently displayed low-contrast visual stimuli Phelps et al. They found that detection of the target was strongest when the fear face served as the spatial cue, suggesting that emotional stimuli can provide additional attentional guidance above and beyond a generic spatial cue. How is the increase in perceptual processing and attentional capture that is observed during the perception of affective stimuli mediated in the brain?
Growing evidence links the amygdala, a subcortical region, with these effects. Thus, it appears that the amygdala may underlie a form of emotional modulation of information that in many ways parallels attentional effects that are observed with non-emotional information Pessoa et al.
There are several ways in which emotional modulation may be accomplished. First, it is possible that direct projections from the amygdala to visual processing regions enhance visual processing. The amygdala sends projections across all levels of the visual system, including anterior regions in temporal cortex and posterior regions in occipital cortex fear acquisition association learning model mineka V1 and V2 Amaral et al.
Thus, the amygdala is well situated to modulate sensory processing according to the affective significance of a visual object. A second possibility is that the amygdala interacts with other brain regions that are important for the control of attention, such as frontal and parietal regions Barbas,which, by their turn, modulate visual processing. In the latter scenario, the amygdala possibly indirectly would recruit attentional circuits so as to enhance the sensory processing of emotion-laden fear acquisition association learning model mineka. This question has received considerable attention because specific answers to this question no or yes suggest potentially different relationships between emotion and cognition more or less independence between the two, respectively.
Interestingly, evidence both for and against automaticity has been presented. For instance, emotional faces evoke responses in the amygdala even when attention is diverted to other stimuli Vuilleumier et al. Perhaps even more strikingly, amygdala responses are sometimes reported for emotional faces of which subjects are not conscious Morris et al, fear acquisition association learning model mineka.
Furthermore, cases of affective blindsight have been reported. These and other related findings suggest that at least some types of emotional perception occur outside of cognitive processing — and may rely on direct subcortical pathways conveying visual information to the amygdala LeDoux, At the same time, recent findings have suggested that the perception of emotion-laden items requires attention, as revealed by attentional manipulations that consume most processing resources, leaving relatively few resources for the processing of unattended emotional items Pessoa et al.
Furthermore, it also appears that amygdala responses evoked by unaware stimuli depend somewhat on the manner by which awareness is operationally defined Merikle et al. Overall, the automaticity debate remains unresolved and controversial Pessoa, ; Wiens, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, ; Bishop, Emotional content can change the formation and recollection of a memory event, consistent with findings in both human and animal studies.
Compared to neutral items, humans remember better emotionally fear acquisition association learning model mineka information, including emotionally charged stories, film clips, pictures, and words.
For instance, in one study participants viewed two videos, one composed of neutral film clips and another composed of emotional film clips Cahill et al. Although the two types of clips were taken from the same source and were equated in terms of levels of understandabilitysubjects were better at remembering emotional relative to neutral clips when tested approximately 3 weeks following the initial viewing of the films.
In another study Bradley et al. Participants initially rated the pictures along the dimensions of valence and arousal. An incidental free-recall test was administered both immediately and at one year following the rating sessions. Pictures rated as highly arousing were remembered better than all other pictures, including those rated as moderately arousing.
Interestingly, the pattern of results was very similar when the subjects were tested a year later, namely, highly arousing pictures were better remembered.
In humans, the amygdala is known to be a critical structure for the enhancement of memory by emotion, consistent with both lesion Adolphs et al. Recent studies have begun to delineate some of the specific functions of this structure. For instance, it appears that the right amygdala is more strongly involved in emotional memory formation, whereas the left amygdala is engaged by the retrieval of those memories Sergerie et al, fear acquisition association learning model mineka.
In addition, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, amygdala responses are also linked to a novelty effect on memory tasks — i. An important dimension of cognition involves behavioral inhibition. Response inhibition, namely the processes required to cancel an intended action, is believed to involve control regions in prefrontal cortex e. Typically, the go and no-go stimuli are shown as part of a rapid stream of stimuli e. A recent study investigated the interaction between the processing of emotional words and response inhibition Goldstein et al.
Response inhibition following negative words e. Interestingly, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, this region was not recruited by negative valence or inhibitory task demands per se ; instead, the dorsolateral cortex was sensitive to the explicit interaction between behavioral inhibition and the processing of negatively valenced words. Although this short review focuses on the impact of emotional content on cognitive functions, here we briefly discuss another important line of studies that fear acquisition association learning model mineka investigated cognitive-emotional interactions, namely, fear acquisition association learning model mineka emotion regulation Ochsner and Gross, ; Ochsner and Gross, Reappraisal appears to depend upon interactions between prefrontal and cingulate regions that fear acquisition association learning model mineka frequently implicated in cognitive control and systems like the amygdala and insula that have been implicated in emotional responding.
Interestingly, having the fear acquisition association learning model mineka to think about stimuli in ways that maintain or increase emotion may boost amygdala activity whereas having the goal to decrease emotion may diminish it. Although much of the work on the cognitive regulation of emotion has relied on a relatively strict separation between cognition and emotion, which are in this context viewed as engaged in tug-of-war for the control of behavior, this framework is likely overly simplistic.
As proposed by Ochsner and Grossa more fruitful approach will entail developing an integrated framework for specifying what combinations of interacting subsystems are involved in emotional responding, as individuals exert varying degrees and types of regulatory control over their emotions.
In attempting to understand the relationship between emotion and cognition, it is important to consider anatomical information. Advances in our understanding of brain connectivity suggest that a given brain region is only a few synapses away from every other brain region Sporns et al. Indeed, it appears that the brain is configured according to a small-world topology in which the path length between nodes is small — typically, cortical areas are connected directly or via just one or two intermediate areas Hilgetag et al.
Thus, a careful consideration of brain connectivity is informative in understanding potential cognitive-emotional interactions. It is also instructive to consider the connectivity of the hypothalamus Risold et al. In particular, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, via its descending connections that innervate brainstem motor systems, this structure is thought to play a key role in the implementation of goal-directed behaviors.
Hypothalamic signals also can be conveyed to the cortex, mostly by way of the thalamus. Critically, fear acquisition association learning model mineka, prefrontal cortical territories project directly to the hypothalamus. Thus, the hypothalamus appears to be organized in such a way that it can generate both relatively reflexive behaviors and behaviors that are voluntarily triggered by inputs from the cerebral cortex Swanson,
Learning Hierarchical Acquisition Functions for Bayesian Optimization
, time: 14:54Evolutionary Psychology | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Jun 01, · 1. Introduction. One fear to rule them all, one fear to find them, one fear to bring them all and in the black box bind them. The pastiche of Tolkien’s text () represents an ideal place to begin a review and synthesis designed to provocatively develop and evaluate the proposition that “fear of the unknown may be a, or possibly the, fundamental fear” underlying Oct 21, · Figure 4: Nonsocial and social fear learning in humans. An individual learns to fear a CS through its pairing with (a) an electric shock to the wrist (fear conditioning), (b) a learning model’s expression of distress (observational fear learning), and (c) verbal information about its aversive qualities (instructed fear) Another postulation by the model that has not been supported is the assumption that fear acquisition of prepared stimuli is a primitive form of learning with little cognitive involvement. For example, Dawson, Shell, and Banis () measured skin conductance response and US expectancy online (i.e., the expectancy that the US will follow the CS)
No comments:
Post a Comment